The Relation between Buddhism and Sufism:

Another interesting article found on my recent travels. Yet again it shall have to suffice in place of my own thoughts and formulations at this time, as the latter, time, is once again against my frail human form. (I am tired and must go to bed).

The Relation between Buddhism and Sufism

In his article, “A Muslim View of Buddhism,” Professor Majid Tehranian underlines the importance and need for a “global civilization” that encompasses the values of the world’s various religious traditions. In my paper, “A Buddhist View of Islam,” I similarly cited the call of His Holiness the Dalai Lama for “universal responsibility.” Global civilization and universal responsibility both depend on meaningful dialogue among world religions, such as Buddhism and Islam. Such dialogue can occur on the level of religious leaders, as well as on the level of the general public. Moreover, it can occur on the level of generalizations, as well as the level of well-documented specific detail.

As mentioned in my paper, both leaders and followers of Buddhism and Islam have been largely unaware, in the past, of each others’ beliefs. This situation is slowly changing at present, but requires greater effort. Thus, in this context, the Internet is becoming an increasingly valuable medium for spreading information and dialoguing, particularly among the public, and even more particularly among young people. Users of the Internet, however, are faced with the formidable task of sifting through the mass of often conflicting information available, in order to locate reliable, unbiased sources. In meeting this challenge, Tehranian’s outline of similarities between Sufism and Buddhism goes in the right direction concerning generalities, but needs to be supplemented with detailed analyses of specific cases, in order to avoid misunderstanding.

For example, Tehranian writes, “Historically, Buddhism and Islam have been neighbors for centuries in Asia. They have heavily borrowed from each other. As a result, new religious traditions (e.g. Sufism) have emerged that contain elements from both.” There is a big difference, however, between two religions having contact with each other and the two “heavily borrowing from each other.”

Tehranian is indeed correct when he asserts, “Both are concerned with human conditions of frailty, fragility, and finitude.” Nevertheless, the fact that both deal with similar issues does not lead to the conclusion that either of the two necessarily influenced the other in formulating its resolution of those issues. This does not discount, however, the possibility that certain ideas may have been borrowed from one religion to another. But, assertions of such borrowing need to be delineated with precision and specificity in order to be credible. After all, both Sufism and Buddhism have long histories, wide geographic ranges, and great diversities of schools and masters, each with its own individual assertions.

For example, Ab Yazid Bistami (804-874 CE) introduced into Sufism the concepts of fana and khud’a from the influence of his teacher, Abu ‘Ali al-Sindi. Fana means cessation of existence– the total destruction of the individual ego in becoming one with Allah; khud’a means deceit or trick, as the description of the material world. In Hindu and Muslim Mysticism, R. C. Zaehner has argued convincingly that al-Sindi, known to have been a convert from another religion, most probably derived the former concept from the Chandogya Upanishad and the latter from the Svetashvetara Upanishad, as interpreted by the Advaitya Vedanta founder, Shankara (788-820 CE). Although all forms of Buddhism deal with the similar topic of nirvana -- release from recurring rebirth – and many Mahayana schools assert that the world of appearances is similar, although not equivalent, to maya, illusion, it is hardly likely that any of their formulations played a role in the development of Sufi thought.

On the other hand, we can find examples of literary borrowings from Buddhism into Sufism. For instance, the Buddhist image of a group of blind men each describing an elephant differently, based on each touching a separate part of the animal, found its way into Sufism in the writings of the Persian scholar Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 CE). Advocating philosophical skepticism, al-Ghazali used the image to illustrate how Islamic theologians possess only partial truth, while Buddha used it in The Sutta of the Non-Buddhist Sects (Pali: Tittha Sutta) to demonstrate the futility of the non-Buddhist philosophers debating their views with each other.

Other Buddhist influences on Sufism occurred in the sphere of ritual practice. Tehranian alludes to this in his brief reference to the Mongol Ilkhanate rule of Iran (1256-1336 CE). In more detail, five of the first six Ilkhan rulers were followers of Tibetan Buddhism, the exception being Ahmad Teguder (r. 1282-1284 CE). The sixth Ilkhan, Ghazan (r. 1295-1304 CE), converted to Islam with the Shi’a Sufi master Sadr ad-din Ibrahim. The increasing emphasis, from this time onwards, on the veneration of the tombs of Sufi saints was perhaps influenced by the Buddhist veneration of stupa relic monuments.

Buddhist borrowings into Islam, however, were not limited to Sufism. Tehranian’s mention of the role that Manichaeism played as a bridge suggests, as a possible example, the account of previous lives of the Buddha as a bodhisattva, known in medieval Christian sources as Barlaam and Josaphat. It is well-known that Manichaean Sogdian versions of these accounts were written prior to their first appearance in an Arabic version as The Book of Bilawhar and Yudasaf, compiled by Aban al-Lahiki (750-815 CE) in Baghdad. This Islamic rendition incorporated parts of the Arabic account of Buddha’s previous lives, The Book of the Buddha (Ar. Kitab al-Budd), also prepared at that time, based on translations into Arabic of two Sanskrit texts, A Rosary of Previous Life Accounts (Skt. Jatakamala) and Aśvaghoşa’s Deeds of the Buddha (Skt. Buddhacarita). Since al-Lahiki’s text is no longer extant, it is unclear how much material he also incorporated in it from Manichaean sources. If some were, it would most likely have been through the influence of dialogue between Buddhist and Manichaean Muslim scholars present, at that time, in the Abbasid court.

Moreover, Buddhist borrowings into Islamic civilization were not limited to the religious or literary spheres. They also occurred in the field of medicine. Tehranian’s mention of the influence of the Barmakid family in the Abbasid court refers to the rule of the fourth Abbasid caliph, Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809 CE), and his chief minister Yahya ibn Barmak, a Muslim grandson of one of the Buddhist administrative heads of Nava Vihara Monastery in Balkh, Afghanistan. Although, Buddhist scholars were already present at the House of Knowledge in Baghdad at that time, Yahya invited yet more Buddhist scholars, especially from Kashmir. No Buddhist philosophical texts, however, were translated into Arabic under Yahya’s patronage. Rather, the focus was on translating, from Sanskrit into Arabic, Buddhist medical texts, specifically Ravigupta’s Ocean of Attainments (Skt. Siddhas a ra).

A far more delicate issue than religious, literary, and scientific borrowing, however, is the issue of a shared ethic as the basis for both global civilization and universal responsibility. For example, Sudan, Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia have criticized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed at the United Nations in 1948, as not taking into account the values of non-Western religions and cultures. Their objections led to the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, adopted by the ministers of forty-eight Islamic countries in 1990 at the Organization of the Islamic Conference. This document recognizes only those human rights that accord with Islamic law, Shari’ah.

In reference to Islam and Buddhism, Tehranian suggests, “ Sufism as a bridge between the two religious traditions.” One of the reasons, he states, is: “In Islam, Sufism represents a reaction against the excessive emphasis on the Shari’ah, the Letter of the Law, as opposed to the Spirit of the Law, the Tariqah.” Great caution, however, is required here. Various Sufi schools may be present in many of the Islamic countries today, but the fact that all the Islamic countries signed the Cairo Declaration indicates that any ethical basis for either global civilization or universal responsibility needs to take Shari’ah into account. Therefore, as a basis for further dialogue in formulating such an ethic, it is essential to undertake further detailed analysis and identification of points of ethics shared in common by the world’s various religious, as well as secular systems.

As for Tehranian’s thesis that Sufism can facilitate Buddhist and Muslim interest in learning more about each other, I believe that this may be the case, but to only a limited extent. In finding common points between the two religions, I do not think it is helpful, however, to emphasize mysticism. “Mysticism” is a technical term used primarily in theistic systems for methods to achieve some type of ecstatic union with God. Such terms are not relevant to Buddhism. More relevant would be the importance of the spiritual master and of meditation methods, such as those for the development of love, breathing exercises, repetition of mantras or dhikrs, and visualization. Such topics, however, will probably be of interest and relevance to only a limited audience of Buddhists and Muslims, and not to the general public among traditional followers of the two religions. Therefore, in addition to well-documented online and printed information and comparative studies concerning Buddhism and Islam, wide media coverage of interfaith services held by leaders of not only the two religions, but of as many religions as possible, might have an even greater positive impact for establishing religious harmony, global civilization, and universal responsibility.

[Source]
Alexander Berzin
November 2006

[originally published with extensive footnotes as
“Response to Majid Tehranian”
in Islam and Inter-faith Relations: The Gerald Weisfeld Lectures 2006,
eds. Lloyd Ridgeon and Perry Schmidt-Leukel.
London: SCM Press, 2007, 256-61]

Music for Healing and Brain Development

A 'typically me' moment.

I give life to a new blog and find myself with nothing to say.

Just as well I came upon this wonderful article then, is it not?

Music for Healing and Brain Development
By Dr. UZUNOGLU, Selim


Each living system is programmed to realize the outer world and act in a conscious way to survive and reproduce. Realizing the outer world is achieved by the sensory organs’ or sensory cells’ receipt of stimuli. Sounds with a particular frequency and intensity are important stimuli used for interspecies communication. Many species have been endowed with an auditory system to sense, process, and recognize sound’s signals—an invaluable gift. Sounds having a certain rhythm, harmony, and melody, or sounds created by a composition of words with rhythm, harmony, and melody, is called music.

Sound produced by living creatures or lifeless objects can have rhythm and harmony. People who listen to this sound and sense its rhythm and harmony call this the “music of nature.” If they cannot sense anything, they call it “noise.” Recognizing sound as music or noise depends on the rhythm, pitches, and melodic contour, as well as the person’s mental state and understanding. Sounds like a blowing wind, flowing water, or chirping birds are signs of a live and active universe. Believers in God realize that these beautiful sounds reflect God’s Names and Attributes, and that God’s re-creation reflects the Divine manifestation. For nonbelievers, they are sounds of nature that offer relaxation and integrate one with nature.

Music is an aesthetic way of communicating that uses rhythm and beauty to carry messages to one’s soul in an effective way. Music can be produced consciously by people as well as produced by nature. More than an effective tool of communication, music is used for entertainment and relaxation. It also is the backbone of a huge job market and commercial sector.

Human nature’s sensitivity to rhythm, melody, and meaningful sounds and its functions have been the subjects of various research projects. Specifically, research conducted in biomusicology analyzes how music affects living systems. Today, the effects of music on human development, learning, and mental health, starting from the prenatal stage, is subject to various research projects.

For many years, it was known that music had a universal language, for every culture has developed its own music. Why is this? Research conducted in biomusicology shows that music has positive effects on humanity’s survival and reproduction. According to Prof. Bjorn Merkur from Mid Sweden University’s Institute for Biomusicology, music is a positive factor in survival and reproduction for many species. It also is an expression of the order and balance that makes life possible.

Many species distinguish and know each other from the sounds they produce. In the mating session, individuals of the same species find each other easily with the help of the sounds they produce. For some birds and mammals, individuals with a superior talent in producing musical sounds have an advantage in mating. Music having such functions in nature has a special place in the human soul, which is equipped with many different senses.

Education starts in the womb

Researchers have known for many years that infants can sense and recognize music. But when can an infant’s nervous system and brain start to sense, process, and remember musical stimuli? Growing evidence shows that during the last three months of pregnancy, a mother’s womb gains some functionality that makes music with a certain rhythm a positive factor in the process of biological development. Previously, researchers assumed that preverbal infants’ mental capabilities were not developing that much until they started to develop verbal capabilities.

This assumption was clearly wrong, for preverbal infants inhabit a world of intense feelings and actively try to perceive sounds and recognize the sounds’ internal rhythms and melodies. This behavior starts in the prenatal stages. Today we know that 5-month-old infants can discriminate between differences in frequencies that are much less than the difference between two adjacent notes on the musical scale. Also, 8-to-11-month-old infants perceive and remember melodic contours. Infants have surprising adult-like capabilities in the way that they perceive and attend to musical stimuli.

In the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology (December 1999), the researcher wanted to know if music really helped children become more aware of their surroundings and have better accuracy when it came to judging distance and space. The resulting data were quite surprising. Students who completed their schoolwork outside of class and had their parents attend music classes regularly placed well above the control group in tests involving cognitive skills (e.g., memory, verbal, non-verbal reasoning, and some mathematics). The researchers concluded that the cause of this was a more intense care-giver and child relationship. This shows that children can score higher on IQ tests based on regular training and experience. Genes alone are not the only factor that affects the level of intelligence.

The more quality time parents spent with their children (attending music classes together), the more successful the children were in their studies. Members of the control group, whose parents were not encouraged to spend time with their children, were not as successful. In fact, the negative effect of not spending enough time with children and causing a poor child relationship is worse than the negative effects of being in a single-parent or low-income household or having poorly educated parents.

In another research, 66 children were given such pre-tests as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and a test for measuring musical skills. The students in the experimental group attended a 75-minute music class for 30 weeks. When the tests were repeated at the end of the 30 weeks, children in the experimental group achieved significantly better results in tests for measuring nonverbal reasoning and creative thinking over the control group. The two groups achieved similar results in tests measuring vocabulary skills. In addition to the music classes, children spending more quality time with their parents increased their scores in a standard IQ test from 50 to 87 percent, whereas children who did not spend much time with their parents increased only to 78 percent.

The overall effects of music

Some hormones in the human body have a relationship with listening to music. Hormones produced by the body or a process that affects the body also affect the brain. Listening to music can reduce or increase the levels of cortisol (the stress hormone), depending on the music’s type and attributes. This was proven in an experiment conducted by measuring the levels of cortisol before and after listening to music. Based on this, it would be helpful to listen to stress-reducing music in stressed and depressing environments or occasions.

Music can play an important role in relaxing and balancing the hormone levels of chronically depressed adolescents. Chronically depressed adults typically display stable right frontal EEG activation. Music can alter a depressed person’s mood state and reduce cortisol levels. For example, 20 minutes of music affects the brain’s activities and reduces the level of cortisol.

Healthy individuals select music without knowing what effects it will have on their body and brain. If some type of music increases one’s heart or breath rate, he or she can decide on how long and which type of music to listen in order to change the levels of the stress hormones. How this would affect a person who continues to listen to that kind of music on a regular basis is an open research topic.

When the chosen music has the desired sound and rhythm that matches the listener’s personality, he or she can more comfortably release the bioenergy produced by his or her soul’s inner beauty. Music education offers insights into such subjects as learning theory, a child’s brain development, child relationships, mental health, and the relationship between learning skills and the readiness to learn.

Conclusion

As part of the redefinition of a human being, we should reevaluate the concept of music, which greatly affects human psychology, mood states, and body and brain activities. Music education can provide people with such skills as collaborative working, careful listening, productivity, coordination, improved vocabulary, and analytical reasoning. The effects of music depend greatly on its type and attributes, as well as on the listener’s mood and mental state. Like everything else, humanity is entrusted with using the concept of music to bring out and develop what is good and beautiful in human beings, instead of using it only for entertainment. Thus we need researchers in diverse fields to come up with new inventions and new syntheses.

References

Bilhartz, Terry D., Rick A. Bruhn, and Judith E. Olson. “Psychology: The Effect of Early Music Training on Child Cognitive Development.” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2, no. 4 (December 1999): 615-36.
Field, T. et al. “Music Shifts Frontal EEG in Depressed Adolescents.” Adolescence 33, no. 129 (1998): 109-16.
Weinberger, N. M. “The Musical Infant.” Musica: The Music & Science Information Computer Archive 1, no. 1 (spring 1994).
“Why Do We Have Music?” Musica (winter 1999).